As of 2024, in Nepal, people are exposed to an average of 83 µg/m³ of air pollution per year, which is 16 times the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended guideline. Nepal, home to 31.2 million people, was ranked 8th among countries with the worst air quality in 2023. The country's capital, Kathmandu, with a population of 2,041,587 and a density of 5,169 persons per sq. km, was ranked as the 11th most polluted city globally. With the capital's population projected to rise to 2.7 million by 2031, Kathmandu faces an imminent threat of even more hazardous levels of air pollution, exacerbating health risks and environmental challenges. 

Air Quality Index: Where does Nepal stand?

Air pollution as per the World Health Organization (WHO),  refers to the contamination of indoor or outdoor environments by chemical, physical, or biological agents that alter the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. Common sources of air pollution include household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities, and forest fires. Pollutants that pose significant public health risks include particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. 

Particulate matter (PM) refers to inhalable particles, consisting of substances like sulfate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust, or water. These particles vary in size and are typically classified by their aerodynamic diameter, with PM2.5 and PM10 (WHO). PM2.5 refers to fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or smaller as visible in Figure 1. These tiny particles are a major air pollutant and pose significant health risks due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream. The yardstick for measuring air pollution levels often uses PM2.5 concentration in micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m³) of air. 

Figure 1: Size Comparison for PM 2.5 particles

Source: USEPA

The WHO  guideline provides the acceptable amount of PM2.5 to be the  Annual mean of 5 µg/m³ or less. However, Nepal's national standards are less stringent.  Nepal's National Ambient Air Quality Standard for PM2.5 for annual average is set at 40 µg/m.

To put things into perspective, the level of PM2.5 concentration has been illustrated into 7 breakpoints by the WHO as maintained in Figure 1 below. 

Figure 2: 2023 World Air Quality Report Visualization Framework

Source: World Air Quality Report

Based on the above breakpoints, Nepal’s annual PM2.5 breakpoints exceed WHO guidelines or target levels by 7-10 times as depicted in Figure 2. In the Central and South Asia region, it was the 5th most polluted country in 2024 as illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Central and South Asia PM 2.5 levels in 2023.

Source: World Air Quality Report

In addition to the above, the UNEP report suggests that there were 59 deaths per 100,000 people owing to fine particle pollution in 2019 resulting in a total of 17,948 deaths in the country.

Kathmandu: The hotbed of air pollution in Nepal

Among the list of majorly polluted cities in Nepal alongside densely populated ones, Kathmandu is undeniably the most prominent one. With the highest number of people living in the capital than any other place in the country, the air pollution in Kathmandu has been worsening day by day, becoming increasingly severe. Hydrocarbons from industrial activities and vehicle emissions contribute significantly to this problem, while dust is continuously stirred up by travel, traffic, and movement. 

During the winter, lower temperatures and the persistence of dust particles in the air exacerbate pollution levels. Cold air forms a cap that traps pollutants, preventing them from dispersing. This dense cold air holds onto pollution, prolonging its presence in the atmosphere. Consequently, air pollution lingers longer during winter, forcing people to breathe in more polluted air compared to the summer months. This can also be observed from the Calendar Plot for PM 2.5 of Air Quality Monitoring Stations in Kathmandu Valley namely Khumaltar, Ratnapark, and Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur illustrated in Figures 4, 5 and 6 respectively which was published in the annual report of Status of Air Quality in Nepal, 2022.

Figure 4: Calendar Plot for PM 2.5 Khumaltar Station (2022)

Source: Department of Environment, Status of Air Quality in Nepal Annual Report, 2022

Figure 5: Calendar Plot for PM 2.5 Ratna Park Station (2022)

Source: Department of Environment, Status of Air Quality in Nepal Annual Report, 2022

Fig 6: Calendar Plot for PM 2.5 Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur (2022)

Source: Department of Environment, Status of Air Quality in Nepal Annual Report, 2022

The figure shows that the air quality in Kathmandu Valley showed distinct seasonal patterns, with significant pollution spikes in January through April when levels frequently reached Unhealthy, or Very Unhealthy categories. The high air pollution spikes particularly in these months are contributed by forest fires along with vehicle emissions and industrial emissions. In March 2024 Nepal's Forest Fire Detection and Monitoring System, recorded 466 forest fires, rising to 1,174 in the first two weeks of April. Forest fires release harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and black carbon causing air pollution. As a result, the concentration of pollutants drastically increased in this time frame. 

As shown in Figure 7, the data analysed from the Khumaltar Air Quality Monitoring station shows daily average PM2.5 levels between 48 µg/m³ and 131 µg/m³ from April 1-10, 2024. Similarly, the US Embassy station in Maharajgunj recorded daily average PM2.5 concentrations between 42 µg/m³ and 137 µg/m³ from April 1-9, 2024. 

Fig 7: Line Graph showing the increase in PM2.5 concentration during April 1-10, 2024.

Source: ICIMOD

This situation can have severe impacts on the health of Kathmandu residents, especially affecting children, the elderly, and those with asthma and respiratory issues. This increases the burden on hospitals and creates difficulties in everyday life. In the coming years, this problem is likely to worsen if necessary steps are not taken in time. Therefore, it is crucial to take immediate steps to control air pollution in Kathmandu. 

What takes Kathmandu’s air pollution levels to record numbers?

There are several causes of elevated pollution levels in Kathmandu, with both human and geographical factors coming together to form these heightened numbers. 

1. Transboundary Air Pollution: Kathmandu is situated in a location that places it deep within a valley and many mountain ranges around. It is also surrounded on both sides by China and India, economic giants who in their rights still have many pollution problems, with cities from both countries often coming in ranked very highly amongst all polluted cities worldwide. The highest concentrations of air pollution are observed in Nepal’s southwestern districts, which share their borders with the highly polluted Indo-Gangetic Plain of India. Here, residents stand to lose nearly 7 years of life expectancy. 

2. Geographical Structure: The bowl-shaped structure of the Kathmandu Valley significantly contributes to air pollution and its stagnancy due to several interrelated factors. The Kathmandu Valley is surrounded by high hills, creating a natural bowl that traps air pollutants. This topography limits air movement and prevents the dispersion of polluted air, particularly during the winter months when temperature inversions often occur.

Fig 8: The Kathmandu Valley topography in 3D perspective

 

Source: Thapa and Murayama 2009

3. Vehicular Emissions: In regards to what is actually causing the pollution in Nepal, the large assortment of vehicles, many of which are ancient and running on outdated motors and diesel fuels, would be responsible for pouring out high concentrations of fumes and noxious pollutants. The emission inventory calculated the total emissions from human activities from all uses to be close to 196 tonnes per year. More than half the emissions were of particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5); CO, the second major pollutant, contributed 32 percent; and all of the other pollutants combined contributed about 16 percent. The high value for particulate matter reflects the effects of the resuspension of dust from roads by vehicles.

Fig 9: Total emissions from different sectors in Kathmandu

Source: ICIMOD

4. Increasing Number of Vehicles: Vehicle registration status in Nepal in the fiscal year 2018/2019 shows that the annual vehicle registration has been growing at the rate of 14% per annum in the last decade. In 2018, total registered vehicles reached 3.22 million which is an increasing trend. Private vehicles take over most of the passenger vehicles with 96% and only 4% registered as public. This reliance on private transport has led to increased emissions and traffic congestion, exacerbating urban air pollution. 

5. Incomplete Construction activities: Construction of major road projects in and around Kathmandu, faces inordinate delays. The dust from these incomplete projects finds itself in every corner of the capital, permeating the roads where it is ground up into even more fine particulate matter and sent billowing into the atmosphere. This creates larger readings of PM2.5 and PM10 in the air, which can have highly damaging effects when respired, as well as mixing with other chemicals from exhaust fumes and factory emissions to create even more harmful compounds and other forms of material.

6. Meteorological Conditions: Data suggests that meteorological factors led to a very stable air mass with low winds and a consequent buildup of air pollution during the studied period. Meteorological analyses of winds at high altitudes, and comparison with those nearer the surface suggest low-pressure systems may have contributed to atmospheric stagnation and buildup of air pollution during the studied timeline.

7. Increase in settlement: From 2013 to 2019 the difference in settlement areas inside the Kathmandu District has increased by 34.35% which has decreased the number of lands used for croplands, wetlands, etc as shown in Figure 10. The rapid increase in built-up areas confirms past reports by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, asserting that urbanization is the main cause for the conversion of agricultural and forest lands into built-up areas in Kathmandu Valley. This has led to creating ripple effects by inviting other factors to have their fair share of contributions towards the increasing air pollution within the valley.

Fig 10: Tables showing Built-up areas in Kathmandu.

Source: Assessment of Landcover Change of Kathmandu District, Nepal

Fig 11: Land use land cover maps of Kathmandu Valley

 

            Source: Land use land cover changes in the major cities of Nepal from 1990 to 2020

Here Figure 10, explains graphically how the increase in settlement in Kathmandu has significantly impacted other land areas in Kathmandu. In Figure 11, we can see that the roads are merged into the "built-up area" category. However, in this figure, the major roads are shown as a separate layer to understand the pattern of land use and land cover change. 

8. Other sources: They include open burning of organic material as well as refuse, as with a lack of proper infrastructure comes problems pertaining to garbage collection and disposal, and as such many people resort to setting fire to their waste. This would cause a lot of fumes that come from the combustion of materials such as wood and plastic, all of which have many negative consequences on human health.

To summarize, the main causes of pollution in Kathmandu are open burn fires, vehicular emissions, dust from construction sites, and damaged areas left over from the earthquakes, all compounded by its geographical location, lack of elevation, and wind to allow these pollutants to disperse properly, instead accumulating and rising to dangerous levels.

Impacts of Air Pollution in Kathmandu

As air pollution becomes increasingly pervasive and harmful, particularly during the months of November through January, its impacts can be divided into two categories based on their urgency: short-term and long-term effects.

1.  Short term impacts

1. Health of Residents: Air pollution in Kathmandu poses immediate health risks, particularly during winter when levels peak. The Ministry of Health and Population regularly issues warnings as residents face increased rates of lung and eye infections. These short-term impacts, documented by both MoHP and WHO, underscore the urgent need for air quality improvement to protect public health. This may create barriers in residents' conduct of their daily conduct.

2. Reduced Mobility

• Aviation Security/ Air Traffic Disruption: The reduced visibility during inflight periods and the effects of aeroplane infrastructure corrosion due to the effects of reduced visibility and acidic pollutants respectively in the air can create increased security risks for National and international flights at the Tribhuvan International Airport. There may be potential flight cancellations or delays at Tribhuvan International Airport due to low visibility.

• Ground Transportation: Smog and haze can significantly reduce visibility, affecting daily activities with an increased risk of traffic accidents due to poor visibility on the ground.

3. Agricultural effects: Damage to crops in peri-urban areas due to ozone and other pollutants. Reduced photosynthesis in plants due to particulate matter blocking sunlight might be witnessed in agricultural areas in and around the Kathmandu Valley.

4. Economic impacts: Although air pollution may not be a substantial contributor to the decrease in the influx of tourism visitors may avoid the city due to pollution. Higher illness rates within the valley may amount to lost productivity due to illness and inability to work outdoors adding up to the Increased healthcare costs for treating pollution-related illnesses.

2. Long term impacts

1. Body Health Impacts: Long-term exposure to air pollution can severely impact health. The WHO recognizes air pollution as the most significant environmental health risk and the second-largest risk factor for non-communicable diseases. In Nepal, air pollution causes 42,100 deaths annually, with 19% in children under five and 27% in adults over 70, reducing average life expectancy by 4.1 years (as shown in figure 12),  showing that air pollution is a major contributor to the top five causes of death, namely COPD(66%), ischemic heart disease (34%), stroke (37%), Lower respiratory infection (47%) and neonatal deaths (22%).

Figure 12: Life Expectancy Impact of PM2.5 

Source: Air Quality Life Index Nepal Fact Sheet 2022.

2. Mental health: Air pollution exposure can negatively affect mental health, causing increased stress and anxiety due to health concerns and lifestyle restrictions. It may also lead to higher depression rates from reduced outdoor activities and limited sunlight exposure.

3. Triggers other Environmental problems: Air pollution triggers other environmental problems as degradation in the quality of air ultimately means an increase in Green House Gas emissions which can cause climate change, global warming, and ozone layer depletion. 

4. Ecosystem impacts: Air pollution stresses urban flora and fauna, hindering growth and survival. Pollutants can also cause acidification of nearby water bodies, disrupting aquatic ecosystems and affecting water quality, which can lead to long-term ecological imbalances in and around urban areas.

5. Infrastructure Degradation: Accelerated weathering of buildings and monuments due to acidic pollutants, Increased maintenance costs for vehicles and other machinery exposed to pollutants

6. Cultural heritage sites impacts: Kathmandu Valley houses some of the most religious and cultural heritage sites which grab international attention, the severe impacts of infrastructure degradation on such historical monuments can impact their structural integrity along with losing their status under UNESCO  World Heritage Sites.

7. Increased Private Vehicles: Increased traffic congestion due to lack of visibility may encourage people to opt for private vehicles over walking or cycling, which directly contributes to the hydrocarbons being emitted into the air.

Current Laws and Policies

There are several laws and policies in operation to mitigate the problem of air pollution in Nepal. Some of the major legal provisions and policies are listed below.

4.1. Constitution of Nepal, 2072 

Under Article 30 of the constitution, the right to live in a clean and healthy environment has been guaranteed which means that every individual has a fundamental right to live in an environment that does not harm their health and the government has the responsibility to maintain environmental standards, reduce pollution, and prevent environmental degradation. 

4.2. Environment Protection Act, 2076 and Rules 2077

Some of the key provisions set out by the act and the rule regarding control of air pollution are as follows:

• Environmental Reports: These are classified into three types based on the nature of the proposals: Brief Environmental Study, Initial Environmental Examination, and Environmental Impact Assessment. The specific type of study required for a kind proposal is outlined in Schedules 1, 2, and 3 of the rules, respectively.

• Post-Service Examination: The Ministry or prescribed body must, within six months after two years of starting production, distribution, or implementing a proposal requiring an environmental impact assessment, analyze the adverse environmental impacts, the mitigation measures taken, their effectiveness, unmitigated impacts, and any unforeseen adverse impacts. They must also maintain updated records of the environmental examination report.

• Pollution Control Standards: The Government of Nepal, through a notification in the Nepal Gazette, may determine the necessary standards for mitigating or eliminating pollution impacts. These standards must be followed by all.

• Pollution Control Certificate: Industries must apply with detailed information and comply with set standards to obtain pollution control certificates. Certificates are issued by the Ministry or Provincial Ministry.

• Environmental Inspector: Environmental Inspectors are responsible for inspections of environmental protection standards, and compliance with environmental study reports and can impose fines for non-compliance or obstruction. While the act doesn’t specify the process of their appointment and their qualification, they work under the Department of Environment.

4.3. Motor and Transportation Management Act, 2048 B.S. and Rules 2054

Road Worthiness Certificate: Vehicles must obtain a Road Worthiness Certificate to ensure they meet safety and operational standards.

Standards for Vehicle Examination: The government can set standards for vehicle examinations, including pollution standards to control emissions from vehicles.

According to the Motor and Transportation Management Rules Pollution Certification is required for:

• Registration of New Vehicles

• Renewal of Registration

• Transfer of Ownership

• Termination of Registration

These provisions ensure that vehicles meet safety, operational, and environmental standards to reduce pollution and promote road safety. Under these acts, the government can also impose standards to be observed by all.

4.5. Standards

Different standards have been set by the government of Nepal under the power granted by the Environment Protection Act and the Motor and Transportation Management Act to regulate vehicular emissions and emissions from the industrial sector. Some of these standards as published in the Nepal Gazette are as follows:

1. Nepal Vehicle Emission Standards, 2069

These are the standards set in the vehicles that are imported from foreign. According to these standards, vehicles must have a Type Approval Certificate and Conformity of Production Certificate to be imported them inside Nepal. These certificates are provided after performing a number of tests according to the mass of the vehicle. The result of these tests must be in accordance with the limit set in the Standard. However, the vehicles which adhere to the Euro-3 equivalent level and are imported from the country completing the minimum testing methods prevailing in their respective countries are considered to have met standards.

2. Petrol and Diesel operated Vehicles Pollution Standards, 2054

This standard has set the limit of  Carbon Monoxide by volume in the smoke emitted by vehicles using LPG or CNG gas to maximum 3%. In the case of vehicles operating using petrol, it has set a limit on the emission of hydrocarbons as follows:

a) For 4 wheelers: 1000 PPM                    b) For 2 wheeler and 3 wheelers: 7800 PPM

3. Green Sticker System

4. National Ambient Air Quality Standards, 2069

Fig 13: National Ambient Air Quality Standards, 2069

Source: Department of Environment

5. Standard on Emission and Stack Height for Brick Industry, 2075 

6. Chimney Height and Emission for Incinerator, 2071

7. Standard on the Dust emitted by Cement and Crusher Industry that mixes in air, 2069

8. Standard on Chimney Height for Industrial Boiler, 2069

9. Light and Medium Vehicle Inspection Manual, 2074

10. Light and Medium Vehicle Fitness Testing Manuals, 2074

11. Vehicle Emission Testing Manual, 2074

These standards set the minimum threshold that is to be met by vehicles and industries to control the emissions from these sectors which contribute significantly to degrading quality of air.

While the aforementioned legislative statutes and standards form the backbone of environmental conservation and transportation management, various ministries have also periodically developed actions, plans, and policies complementing the statutory framework.

4.4. Action Plans and Policies

Several action plans and policies have been formulated to tackle air pollution and devise mitigation strategies. These plans and policies primarily aim to outline comprehensive strategies and establish clear targets. Some of these are listed below:

1. National Environment Policy, 2076

Key objectives of the policy regarding control of air pollution are:

• National Standards: Establish and enforce pollution control standards.

• Quality Measurement Centres: Set up in high-risk cities and industrial areas to monitor pollution.

• Environment-Friendly Technology: Promote the installation of pollution control technologies.

• Clean Household Equipment: Encourage the use of solar stoves, electric stoves, biogas, and improved chimneys.

• Electric Vehicles: Promote the use of electric vehicles to reduce vehicular pollution.

2. Air Quality Management Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley, 2020

The action plan for managing air quality in Kathmandu Valley addresses several key strategies to tackle air pollution:

• Control of Vehicle Emissions:

• Adherence to Euro-VI fuel standards.

• Implementation of emissions standards for in-use vehicles.

• Introduction of a green sticker system for compliance.

• Adoption of Euro standards for large construction machinery and vehicles.

• Installation of diesel particulate filters or mechanical tape piles in diesel vehicles.

• Establishment of five vehicle emission test centers.

• Establishment of five vehicle fitness test centers.

• Promotion of Electric Vehicles:

• Development of charging facilities at bus terminals and other locations.

• Implementation of charging stations.

• Use of smoke-free vehicles at tourist and cultural sites.

• Legal measures to facilitate the conversion of old vehicles to electric ones.

• Ensure Availability of Quality Fuels:

• Focus on providing high-quality fuels to reduce emissions.

• Effective Monitoring System:

• Inclusion of the private sector in monitoring efforts.

• Set up five mobile stations for immediate vehicle pollution checks.

• Compliance with the emission standards: 

• Inspection in the industries including brick industries, 

• Reviewing the standards related to industrial boilers and smoke emitted from brick industries, 

• Involving the private sector in the monitoring process, 

1. Putting a stop to the establishment of new brick factories in Kathmandu Valley.

This comprehensive approach targets both the reduction of emissions from existing vehicles and industries and the promotion of cleaner alternatives.

3. National Adaptation Plan, 2021

To tackle the significant carbon emissions from the transport and industrial sectors, Nepal is focusing on transitioning to cleaner energy-based transportation systems and climate-resilient infrastructure. The strategy emphasizes:

• Electrification and Hybridization:

• Achieving a goal where 20% of both private and public vehicles use hybrid fuel systems by 2030.

• Resilient and Clean Transport Systems:

• Establishing low-carbon, climate-resilient, and safer transport systems by 2030.

The plan also emphasizes building a climate-resilient industry and infrastructure and envisions enhancing the adaptive capacity of the Industry, Transport, and Physical Infrastructure sector through the strengthening of institutions and upgrading to new state-of-the-art technologies by 2035.  

These measures are crucial for reducing urban air pollution and addressing climate change impacts in Nepal. 

4. Second Nationally Determined Contribution (2020)

The Government of Nepal enhanced its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement for the period 2021-2030, following Articles 4.2 and 4.11 of the Paris Agreement, Decision 1/CP.21 paragraphs 23 and 24, and other relevant provisions of the Paris Agreement. The NDC takes into account the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in light of national circumstances. Some commitments under the contribution are:

• Electric Vehicle Sales:

• By 2025, 25% of private passenger vehicle sales and 20% of four-wheeler public passenger vehicle sales (excluding electric rickshaws and tempos) are expected to be electrical. 

• By 2030, these figures are projected to rise to 90% for private passenger vehicle sales and 60% for four-wheeler public passenger vehicle sales (excluding electric rickshaws and tempos).

• Fossil Fuel Demand and Emissions Reduction:

• By 2025, the goal is to reduce fossil fuel demand by 9%, decreasing from 40 million GJ to 36 million GJ. Additionally, emissions are expected to decrease by 8%, from 2,988 Gg CO2 eq. to 2,734 Gg CO2 eq.

• By 2030, fossil fuel demand is projected to decrease by 28%, dropping from 48 million GJ to 34.5 million GJ. Emissions are also expected to reduce by 28%, from 3,640 Gg CO2 eq. to 2,619 Gg CO2 eq.

• Infrastructure and Regulation:

• By 2025:

• At least three provinces will operate electric public transport.

• Three provinces will have established vehicle fitness test centers.

• All metropolitan cities will have roads with bicycle and pedestrian lanes.

5. Environment-Friendly Vehicle and Transportation Policy, 2071

The policy was designed to:

• Promote Renewable and Alternative Energies: Encourage the use of renewable energy sources, such as electricity, to reduce vehicle emissions.

• Target for 2020: Aim to have at least 20% of all vehicles and transportation means be environment-friendly by the year 2020 (2077BS).

Despite these goals, the share of electric vehicles was approximately 1% as of 2020, according to the Second NDC report. This indicates a significant gap between the policy's objectives and the real-world outcomes, suggesting challenges in implementation or other barriers to achieving the target.

6. Forest Fire Management Strategy 2067

The strategy outlines the following major points for controlling forest fires:

1. Policy, Legal, and Institutional Development and Improvement: Strengthening policies and institutions related to forest fire management.

2. Education, Awareness Raising, Capacity Building, and Technology Development: Enhancing public awareness, building capacity, and developing necessary technologies for forest fire management.

3. Participatory Fire Management and Research: Involving local communities in fire management and conducting research to improve fire management practices.

4. Coordination and Collaboration, International Cooperation, Networking, and Infrastructure Development: Enhancing coordination and collaboration at all levels, promoting international cooperation, and developing the necessary infrastructure for effective forest fire management.

7. 16th National Action Plan FY 2081/82-2085/86

The 16th Action Plan formulated by the National Planning Commission has addressed the concerns of pollution including air pollution under the chapter of Biodiversity, Climate Change and Green Economy. The action plan recognizes the increase of vehicles in urban areas as one of the major reasons for vehicle traffic and air pollution. To mitigate the situation it also proposes the introduction of new technologies in the public transportation sector and building transportation infrastructure. Besides that, other major strategies and programmes proposed by the plan are as follows:

Strategies:

1. Emission Standards and Regulation: Determining and monitoring emission and environmental impact standards across all sectors and regulating these standards effectively.

2. Investment in Clean Energy: Investing in clean energy conversion and environment-friendly technologies.

3. Polluter Pays Principle: Implementing the principle where polluters are financially responsible for pollution control.

4. Effective Waste Management: Reducing waste management costs through public-private partnerships. The plan also seeks to hold producers, importers, and polluters accountable for industrial, hospital, and hazardous waste management through the implementation of the concept of extended producer responsibility.

5. Industrial Emissions and Pesticide Control: Reducing industrial emissions by controlling pesticide use and conducting consumer education on these issues.

Main Programs:

1. Pollution Control Programs:

• Determining and updating pollution and emission standards for all sectors.

• Expanding pollution measurement centres and enhancing environmental monitoring and regulation capacity.

• Monitoring transboundary pollution.

2. Public Transportation:

• Ensuring public transportation is reliable, technology-friendly, and based on clean energy.

• Displacing old smoke-emitting vehicles.

3. Infrastructure for Bicycles and Pedestrians:

• Constructing paths for bicycles and mandatory footpaths along highways in market areas.

4. Waste Management:

• Involves the private sector to reduce, reuse, and recycle waste, making it cost-effective and sustainable.

• Prohibiting waste disposal and burning in rivers, rivulets, and forests.

• Imposing a tax on waste disposed of in landfills.

• Controlling plastic items.

• Creating an action plan to increase the use of organic fertilizers and reduce chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Similarly, note the progress made by The 15th Action Plan specifically in the field of air pollution control, it aimed to increase greenery in public areas by 5% and achieve the target of PM 2.5 air pollution of 40 micrograms per cubic meter as of 2023/24. However, achievements include very limited progress in greenery promotion (with open spaces in Kathmandu and Lalitpur at only 0.48% and 0.06%, respectively) and partial success in reducing air pollution (PM 2.5 levels averaged 42.5 micrograms per cubic meter in 2023).

Besides these actions, plans and policies, Nepal has also shown its commitment in international forums to meet certain standards regarding pollution control.

International Commitments to be met by Nepal

International commitments regarding air quality are shaped by various frameworks and agreements aimed at reducing pollution and protecting public health. Here are some key commitments and initiatives:

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

In 2015, all UN Member States adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which includes specific goals related to air quality. The relevant SDGs and their impacts on Nepal’s air quality  include:

• SDG 3 (Health): Reduce pollution-related illnesses, improve respiratory health, and monitor particulates.

• SDG 7 (Energy): Transition to renewables, invest in clean energy, and increase efficiency.

• SDG 11 (Cities): Improve urban planning, promote sustainable transport, and increase green spaces.

• SDG 13 (Climate): Reduce emissions, adopt climate-resilient practices, and foster international cooperation.

These goals collectively address health, energy, urban development, and climate aspects of air quality improvement.

These goals encourage countries to take action against air pollution and its health impacts, with the World Health Organization (WHO) monitoring indicators related to air quality exposure and disease burden.

Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)

Nepal joined the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) in 2022, endorsing meaningful action to reduce the short-lived climate pollutants, methane, black carbon, and hydrofluorocarbons. The CCAC is a partnership that involves governments and civil society to reduce emissions of short-lived climate pollutants. This coalition supports various initiatives, such as the Urban Health Initiative, aimed at improving air quality in cities.

WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines

The WHO has established guidelines for key air pollutants, which, while not legally binding, provide thresholds that countries can adopt into their legislation. The latest guidelines were updated in 2021 to reflect new scientific evidence regarding health risks associated with air pollution.

Fig 14: WHO Air Quality Guidelines 2021 compared to 2005 

Source: WHO

The comparison between the 2021 WHO Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) and Nepal's National Ambient Air Quality Standards (2012) reveals significant discrepancies. For PM2.5, the WHO's 24-hour guideline is 15 µg/m³, whereas Nepal's standard is 40 µg/m³. For PM10, the WHO's 24-hour guideline is 45 µg/m³, compared to Nepal's 120 µg/m³. Overall, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards set by Nepal in 2012 do not comply with the WHO 2021 AQG levels nor with the one set in 2005. Nepal's standards are generally higher, meaning they allow for higher concentrations of pollutants compared to the WHO guidelines.

Moreover, in the context of Kathmandu Valley, the air quality status published in 2022 revealed that concentrations of pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, and TSP frequently exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) of Nepal. Given that Nepal's standards are already less stringent than WHO guidelines, the frequent non-compliance with NAAQS is particularly concerning. Exceeding these standards on many days means that the residents are frequently exposed to air pollution levels that can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular problems, decreased lung function, and other health issues.

 The Achilles heel in Kathmandu’s widespread pollution

While there are several laws and policies in hand the main question arises as to whether these are only in papers or have been formulated effectively. The increasing number of vehicles, underdeveloped road infrastructure, rising air pollution, and several side effects of air pollution faced by people indicate otherwise. The ineffectiveness of laws and policies in addressing air pollution in Nepal can be attributed to several factors:

1. Weak Enforcement and Compliance: Despite the existence of stringent regulations, enforcement remains a significant challenge. Many vehicles fail pollution tests, and a substantial portion of vehicles on the road do not meet pollution control standards. In the approved annual program of the Department of Environment for fiscal year 70/80 “Vehicle Pollution Monitoring (Surprise Check)”, 66% passed the pollution test whereas 34% didn’t. This means that a significant portion of vehicles on the road did not meet the pollution control standards set by the department, highlighting a need for improved enforcement and possibly stricter regulations to ensure better compliance and reduce vehicle emissions.

2. Weak Harmonisation between Complementing Policies: Weak harmonization between complementary policies can significantly impede effective implementation. This issue occurs when policies intended to work together are not well-coordinated, leading to inefficiencies and conflicts. In Nepal, poor design during policy formulation and weak harmonization between policies have been major obstacles. This lack of coordination results in overlapping roles, inefficient resource allocation, and policy failure.

3. Inadequate Infrastructure: The limited number of operational Air Quality Monitoring Stations hampers the ability to comprehensively assess and address air quality issues. As per the annual report of the Department of Environment, only 11 Air Quality Monitoring Stations have been repaired and brought back into operation in the fiscal year 79/80. At the moment out of 27 stations, only 12 are operational. This indicates a limited monitoring capacity, affecting the comprehensive assessment of air quality across different locations. 

4. Reliance on Private Vehicles: The heavy reliance on private transport over public transport leads to increased emissions. The predominance of private vehicles, with motorcycles making up 79% of total registered vehicles, exacerbates urban air pollution. Public transport systems need significant improvements to reduce the dependence on private vehicles.

5. Limited Public Awareness and Engagement: There is a lack of awareness among the general public about the health impacts of air pollution and the importance of adhering to emission standards. Public participation and cooperation are crucial for the successful implementation of pollution control measures.

6. Inadequate Resources and Funding: The implementation and maintenance of pollution control measures require substantial financial resources. The limited funding allocated to environmental protection and the upkeep of monitoring stations hinders the effective execution of air quality management plans.

7. Urbanization and Industrialization: Rapid urbanization and industrialization without adequate pollution control measures contribute significantly to air pollution. Industries and construction activities often operate without stringent adherence to environmental regulations, leading to higher emissions.

8. Seasonal Factors: Wildfires during drought seasons significantly contribute to air pollution, and these are often beyond the control of existing urban pollution control measures. Seasonal variations in air quality require adaptable and responsive strategies that are currently lacking.

9. Political and Bureaucratic Hurdles: Policy implementation is often delayed or obstructed by bureaucratic inefficiencies and political instability. This results in slow progress in enforcing laws and executing action plans.

10. Economic Constraints: The economic priorities of the country often overshadow environmental concerns. There is a reluctance to impose strict regulations that might impact economic growth or burden businesses with additional compliance costs.

11. Technological Gaps: The adoption of cleaner technologies, such as electric vehicles and pollution control devices, is slow due to high costs and lack of incentives. The infrastructure for supporting alternative energy sources, like charging stations for electric vehicles, is underdeveloped.

Addressing these issues requires a multi-faceted approach involving stricter enforcement, improved infrastructure, increased public awareness, and substantial investment in clean technologies and public transport systems. Enhanced political commitment and international cooperation could also play pivotal roles in effectively mitigating air pollution in Nepal.

Strategies to overcome the contemporary scenario

The impacts of air pollution are quite widespread. It is pertinent for Kathmandu to initiate strategies which are efficient in both long-term and short-term perspectives. While the long-term strategies might incur a longer period in its full mobilisation as it involve larger stakeholders, short-term strategies could be implemented to complement the larger objective. This provides a testament to the international community that Kathmandu is trying in its capacity to rejuvenate the air quality to its best standards possible. These short-term strategies act as a building block and as a sense of motivation for all stakeholders to contribute to the greater good. The following are the short-term and long-term strategies that can be implemented: 

Short term Strategies

1. Enhance Emission Testing and Enforcement: Increasing the number of emission testing centers and ensuring they are well-equipped to handle the growing number of vehicles can ensure that vehicles are effectively tested. Enforcing emission standards strictly with regular surprise checks and penalties for non-compliance can create an obligation among vehicle owners to abide by the standards.

2. Immediate Air Quality Monitoring: The damaged and non-functional stations can be quickly repaired and upgraded which can ensure more comprehensive and real-time data from all around the country. Similarly, mobile air quality monitoring stations can be used to fill gaps in coverage and provide real-time data.

3. Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch campaigns to educate citizens about the health impacts of air pollution and promote practices like carpooling and reducing vehicle idling. Encourage the vehicle owners to do regular vehicle servicing which can reduce emissions to some extent. Promote cleaner practices among businesses and households to adopt cleaner technologies and practices like alternative energies.

4. Improve Public Transport: Improved quality and reliability of public transport vehicles can make them a more attractive alternative to private vehicles which can reduce the number of private vehicles on the road minimizing vehicular emissions. Traffic management can be enhanced and public transport routes can be optimized to reduce congestion and emissions and save time for passengers in public transport.

5. Enforce Existing Regulations: Implement and enforce existing vehicle emission standards and pollution control regulations more rigorously by increasing the frequency of compliance checks for both new and in-use vehicles.

6. User-Friendly Data Distribution: The timely publication of air quality data through user-friendly websites and apps is crucial for mitigating pollution. Providing real-time, localized information with visual aids and health advisories can increase public awareness and engagement, encouraging personal actions to reduce emissions and support broader pollution control initiatives.

Long-Term Strategies

• Electrification of Transport: Develop and expand infrastructure for electric vehicles, including charging stations and maintenance facilities. Providing incentives such as subsidies or tax breaks for purchasing electric vehicles can encourage the public to opt for electric vehicles.

• Promote Cleaner Technologies: Invest in research and development for cleaner technologies and alternative fuels and support the adoption of pollution control technologies in industries and transportation.

• Urban Planning and Infrastructure: Increase green spaces in urban areas to help absorb pollutants, improve air quality and invest in modern traffic management systems to reduce congestion and emissions.

• Strengthen Legislation and Policies: Regularly update air quality standards to align with international guidelines and ensure they are stringent enough to protect public health. Similarly, ensure that air quality management policies are integrated across sectors, including transport, industry, and urban development.

• Public Transport Expansion: Build and expand public transport networks to reduce reliance on private vehicles which can help minimize curb of vehicles. The connectivity between different modes of transport can be improved to make public transport more convenient.

• Community Engagement and Participation: Engaging local communities in air quality management initiatives can encourage grassroots efforts to improve air quality and support community-driven projects that focus on sustainability and pollution reduction.

• Climate and Environmental Integration: Ensure that air quality management strategies are aligned with national and international climate goals, such as those outlined in Nepal’s NDCs. Consider the broader environmental impact of policies, including their effects on climate change and ecosystem health.

By combining these short-term and long-term strategies, Nepal can address air pollution more effectively and work towards a healthier and more sustainable environment.

Conclusion

To conclude, the Kathmandu Valley is grappling with severe air pollution, with annual exposure levels of 83 µg/m³, far exceeding WHO guidelines. The crisis is exacerbated by rapid population growth, urbanization, and increased vehicular and industrial emissions, along with seasonal forest fires that trap pollutants in the winter. These conditions lead to both immediate impacts, such as mobility issues, transportation disruptions, and agricultural damage, and long-term health risks, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, mental health problems, and ecosystem degradation. The pollution crisis not only jeopardizes public health but also threatens economic productivity and the preservation of cultural heritage, necessitating urgent and targeted interventions.

Fig 15: PM2.5 concentration increase from 1998

Source: Air Quality Life Index (Nepal Fact Sheet)

Figure 15 elaborates that since 1998, Nepal has seen a 62 per cent increase in its average annual particulate pollution concentrations, further cutting short average life expectancies by nearly 2 years. This increase requires both proactive and reactive responses to maintain proper air quality in all regions including that of Kathmandu.

Addressing this challenge requires a multi-faceted approach, incorporating both short-term and long-term strategies. As the winter is nearing in Kathmandu, immediate actions should be focused on enhancing emission testing, repairing air quality monitoring stations, and raising public awareness about pollution. In parallel, long-term efforts must include promoting electric vehicles, investing in cleaner technologies, and expanding public transport infrastructure. Strengthening legislation, integrating air quality management into urban planning, and fostering community engagement are also crucial. By combining these strategies, Nepal can work towards significantly reducing air pollution, improving public health, and advancing towards a more sustainable and healthier future.